====== Pronouns ====== **//Pronoun//** is a class of words which substitute not only the [[grammar_noun|noun]] (personal pronouns), but also adjective (in example genitive/possessive form of personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns), adverb (some indefinite pronouns) or numeral. Taking the role of word other than noun and controversy when some demonstrative, indefinite and relative pronouns may be treated as other parts of speech (depending on language, or within one language depending on situation) is the reason why in modern linguistic pronouns are grouped with such controversial words together as **//[[proform|pro-forms]]//**. All pronouns that take the role of subject or object of the sentence are inflected in cases and have grammatical category of person. Classical [[Nûrlâm]] do not have category of [[grammar_number|number]] and [[grammar_gender|gender]] but in colloquial speech many pronouns have got grammatical number and 3rd person personal pronouns also have got grammatical gender. Indefinite, relative and interrogative pronouns were only universal and unanimated in [[archaic_style|Archaic Nûrlâm]]. [[grammar_gender|Animated]] pronouns are introduced (but rarely used) in Standard language and become commonly used in colloquial language. Some pronouns may be [[clitics|clitic]] and standalone. ----------------------------- ===== Personal pronouns ===== {{page>include:personal_pronouns}} -------------------------------- ==== Case forms of pronouns ==== //Standalone// personal pronouns are inflected in [[grammar_case|cases]] with many irregular forms. Specially modern variants of 1st and 3rd person, which differ from standard and archaic language, but use their objective case form to make other cases. However most of these cases are rarely seen in modern language. {{page>include:pronoun_cases}} ------------------------------- ===== Possessive pronouns ===== Nûrlâm doesn't have special possessive pronouns but uses [[case_genitive|genitive case]] of personal pronouns instead. In example English "my" should be translated as "of I" (dab). Possessive pronouns often become [[clitics]] attached to noun, similar to short adjectives. ----------------------------- ===== Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns ===== Nûrlâm has one //reflexive// pronoun **//-îm//** ("self") for all persons (as in Quenya or real-world Icelandic). As with personal pronouns it was originally plural, but later become singular in colloquial speech with plural form made with standard suffix //-û//. It is inflected in cases. Genitive case is used to express possessive form which English lacks, thus //îmob// can be translated as "own". Reflexive pronoun //-îm// is also used as [[prefixes|prefix]] (the same as English "self-") before nouns. When reflexive pronoun is added to the verb as clitic, the verb may be analyzed as being in [[grammar_voice|reflexive voice]]. But this term is not used because of it's rarity. There is no special //reciprocal// pronoun like English "one another" or "each other". Generalizing pronoun "they" may be skipped. For example English sentence "They saw each other" translates into "Ash hontuzta isk" (lit. "one saw another"). If two nouns are mentioned in reciprocal phrase (e.g. "orcs and elves saw each other"), they are not skipped, e.g. "uruk agh golug hontuzut ûgh isk". Word order may vary ("... isk ûgh" instead). Possible words for making reciprocal pronouns are "ash" (one), "isk" (another, other), "ûgh" (each, every) in virtually any combination, for example "ûgh ûghish" (every every) is possible. Possessive forms like "one another's" are made by adding genitive case suffix "-ob" to **both** of words. See [[#indefinite pronouns]] and [[proform|pro-forms]] articles. --------------------------------------------- ===== Demonstrative pronouns ===== Classical Nûrlâm has two demonstrative pronouns: **//za//** (standing both for //this// and //these//) and **//zîg//** (//that// and //those// respectively). In modern language they have got distinct plural form by adding standard plural suffixes (becoming //zaz// and //zîgû// correspondently). Both words can be inflected in case. Demonstrative pronoun //za// (this) later become used also as neuter personal pronoun (it) and definite article (the). Some words with similar relation but referring to place or time are considered adverbs. See [[proform|Pro-forms]] article for a full list of demonstrative words. ^ Category ^ Distance ^^ ^ ::: ^ Near ^ Far ^ | Person or thing | za\\ (this) | zîg\\ (that) | | Person, plural | zahai\\ (these people) | zîghai\\ (those people) | ---------------------------------- ===== Relative and interrogative pronouns ====== While in the most of languages relative and interrogative pronouns are identical in most forms, in Black Speech dialects there is a difference. Interrogative pronouns (question words) are often started with //m-// and relative pronouns are formed by placing prefix //a-// before interrogative pronouns with an exception of //zamash// (relative //that//). Some of these words are considered adverbs in English (where, when, why, how), and //zamash// (relative that) is treated as conjugation in other languages. See [[proform|Pro-forms]] article for a full list of them. ^ Interrogative ^ Relative ^ English translation ^ | mash | amash | what, which | | mai | amai | who((considered plural, may be inflected in cases)), which | | | zamash | that((only in relative clauses)) | The word //mai// (= who) may be inflected in cases, particularly genitive case (//maib//) is used as analog of English "whose" and others are translated as "whom" with corresponding preposition. ------------------------------------------------ ===== Indefinite pronouns ===== //Indefinite pronouns// is the largest group of pronouns, usually referring to unspecified persons, things. Many of them are functioning also as adverbs or adjectives. This group of pronouns also includes many [[grammar_numerals#quantifiers|quantifier words]]. Many English indefinite pronouns are combined words starting with //every-//, //some-//, //any-// while word //-ever// is the only one placed after the root. Black Speech in contrast place most of such words after the root and frequently with merging adjacent sounds. Similarily to difference between Nûrlâm's relative and interrogative pronouns there is a distinction between elective and dubitative existential pronouns which are the same in English. Dubitative indefinite pronouns are similar to interrogative and used with irrealis category of [[grammar_mood|mood]] (including questions). Elective pronouns are formed from dubitative the same way as relative pronouns from interrogative, by adding prefix //a-//. See [[proform|Pro-forms article]] for full list of Indefinite pronouns.