====== Grammatical case ====== //**Case**// is special grammatical form of [[grammar_noun|nouns]] and [[pronouns]] expressing their role in syntax and semantics of sentence. Usually languages with case system a little bit complex than English also apply cases to adjectives, numerals and other lexical categories able to function as object or subject. [[Nûrlâm]] has no agreement in case with them. However numerals have some case endings with special meaning. Nûrlâm has 14 cases formed mostly by [[adpositions|postpositions]] which are usually translated into English as prepositions, which makes interpretation of cases much easier than one can expect from their quantity. The exception is Accusative case ending, which has no separate meaning thus making it suffix rather than postposition. The case system is very close to that of Finno-Ugric (Uralic) languages, some languages of Caucasus and extinct [[hurrian_hypothesis|Hurrian language]] which has some similarity with Tolkien's Black Speech. There is also some resemblance with Quenya's case system, which was also inspired by Finnish language. Case postpositions are the same for all lexical categories using them, but are different for two existing [[declension classes]] and many pronouns have special forms. Certain [[grammar_verb|verbs]] require their objects to be in specific case or may even change their meaning depending on object's case. ==== Case endings table ==== The table of case postpositions and suffixes. "∅" stands for zero-ending. "Ending I" is for declension class I (ending with consonants) and "Ending II" is for words ending with vowels. {{page>include:case_suffix_table}} Locative and marginal cases change [[syntax|syntactical]] role of noun to [[syntax_adverbials|adverbial phrase]] instead of [[syntax_object|object]] or [[syntax_subject|subject]]. ------------------------------------ ==== Relation of locative cases ==== The table below shows better the distinction between various [[:case_locative|locative cases]]: {{page>include:locative_case_summary}} However, while the difference between Illative and Allative cases is usually clear and easy to catch, with other pairs it's often not, so some practice and memorization is needed. -------------------------------- ==== Case forms of pronouns ==== Case forms are given for //standalone// personal [[pronouns]]. Forms different from standard are marked **bold**. Pronouns in Accusative case always has //-(i)sh// endings (except 3rd person neutral //za// and plural //tak// and //ut//). 1st and 2nd person plural pronouns have case same forms as their singular equivalents but with common plural suffixes //-û// or //-z// added //after// case endings according to postposition's declension class (e.g. "izishiz" = to us). Other pronouns has usual case endings according to tables above. As subject and object pronouns have distinct forms, the terms Subjective and Objective case are used instead of Nominative or Accusative. {{page>include:pronoun_cases}} -------------------------------- ==== Case forms of numerals ==== [[grammar_numerals|Numerals]] have no agreement with nouns in case but they take case some case endings to modify their meanings. They are: * Genitive case suffix **//-ob//** is used in expression of //fractions// in contrast to English use of ordinals. Example: //ash gakh__ob__ gaub// = one third of fruit. (changed) * Instrumental case suffix **//-irzi//** express //distributive// numbers, i.e. //hantirzi// = by four(s), //ash ashirzi// = one by one. ---------------------------------------------- ===== Evolution of cases in Black Speech ===== Probably every postposition was meant to be a specific case ending in ancient forms of Black Speech. Orc-curse copies English grammar in cases (lacking of them) and using prepositions instead of postpositions. So, the following [[black_speech_evolution|stages]] of dropping out the cases are assumed: - //Accusative// took the null ending for nouns quite early, however pronouns kept special form of it, and some other case endings are added to it instead of Nominative case form. - merging //Adessive// and //Inessive// cases for declension class II (same ending //-r// instead of //-zir// and //-zor//), later they merged also for declension class I into general Locative case (in form of Inessive //-or//). - abandoning of //locative// cases except //Allative// and //Illative//. - only 7 cases are left in [[black_speech_dialects#svartiska|Svartiska]]: //Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Instrumental, Inessive// (took ending of Illative), //Locative, Similative// (Essive). Some of them have endings different from Nûrlâm's. - [[[black_speech_dialects#shadowlandian|Shadowlandian]] dialect does not name postpositions as cases but still have special grammatical meanings of remaining ones. It uses the form of Allative case as Dative at least for pronouns. So, five cases (//Nominative, Genitive, Dative-Allative, Instrumental, Illative//) plus special form of //Accusative// for pronouns left in Shadowlandian. - in Colloquial Svartiska only four cases (//Nominative, Genitive, Inessive-Illative// and sometimes //Dative//) are left according to [[https://books.google.ru/books?id=SOF7m2m3AXcC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&redir_esc=y&hl=ru#v=twopage&q&f=false|Arda Philology 1]] - no cases in [[Orcish curse]]. Probably, //Genitive// is still used sometimes as //Possessive// case. In Shadowlandian only 3rd person singular pronouns kept distinct //Objective// case form (same as Accusative but used for all other cases).